Industrial Data Communications 4th Edition

Chapter 7 - Wide Area Networks: Direct Distance Dial (DDD)

The direct distance dial (DDD) system is used for calls outside the so-called local access and
transport area (LATA). The ten-digit LATA number (in North America) is composed of a
three-digit area-code prefix to the normal number, which is a three-digit central office and
four-digit station number. Calls on LATA can be routed in many ways: by radio link, satellite,
wireline, microwave, or fiber optics. All of these are digital trunks. In North America, only
the subscriber line, the so-called last mile, is analog; all other transmissions are digital. So
the PC is digital to the modem, converted to analog to go over the subscriber line to the
central office (CO), and converted to digital for long lines. At the destination CO it is converted
back to analog, where it is sent to the destination and converted back to digital.
What a lot of wasted conversions.

Not all lines in the world are digital, however. Some long lines (outside of North America)
are still analog and connect to trunk lines where the circuit is converted from a two-wire
(one pair) to a four-wire circuit-one pair for transmit and one pair for receive. Why?
Simple! Some lines need amplifiers to make up for loss. These amplifiers have only one
direction, from the source to the destination, since each pair of a four wire line is unidirectional.
A little study will show that if the hybrids (two- to four-wire conversion devices) or
the digital terminations are not exactly balanced, then some of one line's energy will slip
over into the other line's amp. If that happens at the other end also, then an oscillator is
created that produces, at the very least, an echo that is very distracting to the person trying
to talk or listen. To deal with this problem, an echo suppressor is placed in both lines.
Actually, this is an electronic switch that allows one amplifier to be on at a time. Neither
party can talk simultaneously and communicate. Normally, one person talks, and when he
or she provides an opening, the other person talks (unless, of course, you are arguing with
your significant other). The echo suppressor listens, and, when there is no energy in one
line, it will turn the amplifier off. It takes only 100 milliseconds of silence (0.1 second) for
the echo suppressor to switch one party off and the other talking party on. This action is
not noticed in the normal course of human speech. Both digital and analog lines can have
echo suppressors.

With a duplex modem, there is a problem: some lines have echo suppressors; others do
not. Communication is not possible in both directions, as duplex operation requires, on lines
that have echo suppressors because one of the amplifiers will be off. This is taken care of in
the modem handshake. The answer tone will last in excess of 400 milliseconds. When the
echo suppressor hears the answer tone for a sufficient length of time, it turns off the echosuppressor
feature until the next 100 milliseconds of silence occurs. Since the modem
handshake, under normal circumstances, leads to tones in both directions until transmission
is complete, the echo suppressors are effectively out of the circuit. If the line is dropped,
even for only little more than 100 milliseconds, connection must be reestablished.

 

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