Rolled Metals and Drawn Metals Specifications

Help with Rolled Metals and Drawn Metals specifications:

Size / Dimensions

	Overall Thickness		This is the overall thickness of stock forms, tube walls, or other fabricated components.
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	Gauge Thickness		The numerical gauge thickness of the sheet, foil, or wire product.  Different gauge systems are used for different stock forms and alloy types.
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	Overall Width / OD		This is the overall width or outer diameter (OD) of stock forms such as bars, plates, and tubes. Overall width is the average particulate diameter for raw materials such as powders, granules, and pellets.
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	Overall Length		This is the length of stock materials such as bars, rods, plates, and tubes.
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Metal / Alloy

	Ferrous / Iron Based:
	Your choices are...
	Ferrous / Iron Based - Any Type		Ferrous metals and alloys are based on iron. This category includes carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, cast iron, maraging steel, and other specialty iron-based alloys.
	Carbon Steel (UNS G)		Plain carbon steels are ferrous alloys based on iron, carbon, and small levels of other alloying elements such as manganese or aluminum. Carbon steels include soft, non-hardenable low carbon or mild steels such as 1020, as well as hardenable high carbon steels such as 1095.  Steel alloys are used in a wide variety of applications in almost every industrial segment. Mild steels and low carbon steels can be fabricated easily by machining, forming, casting, and welding.
	Alloy Steel  (UNS G)		Alloy steels are ferrous alloys based on iron, carbon, and high to low levels of alloying elements such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and nickel. Alloy steels include hardenable high alloy steels, high strength low alloy steels, maraging steel, and other specialty steel alloys. Steel alloys are used in a wide variety of applications in almost every industrial segment. Low alloy steels can be fabricated easily by machining, forming, casting, and welding.
	Stainless Steel  (UNS S)		Stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, ferrous alloys that contain chromium and/or nickel additions. There are three basic types of products: austenitic stainless steels, ferritic and martensitic stainless steels, and specialty stainless steels and iron superalloys. Austenitic stainless steels (AISI 300 / 200 Series) are highly corrosion resistant, ferrous alloys that contain chromium and nickel or manganese additions. Generally, austenitic stainless steels are more corrosion resistant than ferritic or martensitic stainless steels. Annealed austenitic stainless steels are non-magnetic. Cold working is used to harden austenitic stainless steels because these alloys do not respond to conventional quench and temper hardening processes. Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are highly corrosion resistant, ferrous alloys that contain chromium and/or carbon additions. Ferritic stainless steels are soft, easy to form metal alloys. Cold working is used to harden ferritic stainless steels because these alloys do not respond to conventional quench and temper hardening processes. Ferritic stainless steels are formed to fabricate mufflers and other sheet metal components that require good corrosion resistance. Martensitic stainless steels can be hardened by a conventional quench and temper operation. Martensitic stainless steels are used for knife blades, tooling, or other applications that require good corrosion resistance combined with higher hardness and wear resistance. Specialty stainless steels and iron superalloys are highly corrosion resistant, ferrous alloys containing chromium, nickel, or other alloying additions to provide high strength or heat resistance. Duplex and precipitation hardening stainless steels belong in this category.
	Tool Steel (UNS T)		Tool steels are wear resistant, ferrous alloys based on iron and carbon with high levels of alloying (hardenability and property modifying) elements such as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and vanadium. Specific tool steel grades are available for die or cold work, hot work, high speed, and shock resistance applications. Tool steel alloys are used in a wide variety of applications that require wear resistance. They are difficult to fabricate in their hardened form and are usually EDM-machined or ground to achieve the tolerances required for tooling applications. EDM is an acronym for electrical discharge machining. This is a process that can cut small or odd-shaped angles, intricate contours, and cavities in extremely hard steels and exotic metals.
	Hardenability Specified / H-Steel (UNS H)		AISI-SAE H-steels are produced to specified hardenability bands. AISI is the American Iron and Steel Institute, a North American trade association. SAE is the Society of Automotive Engineers.
	Mechanical Property Specified (UNS D, Structural)		UNS D steels have specified mechanical properties.
	Specialty / Other Ferrous (UNS K)		Other miscellaneous ferrous alloys have specialized or proprietary compositions or properties. Examples include maraging steels, high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, and iron-based superalloys.
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	Nonferrous Metals:
	Your choices are...
	Non-ferrous - Any Type		Non-ferrous metals and alloys are not based on iron and include alloys of aluminum, copper, titanium, zinc, nickel, cobalt, magnesium, tungsten, molybdenum, precious metals, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, refractory metals, as well as many other metals and alloys.
	Aluminum / Aluminum Alloy  (UNS A)		Aluminum and aluminum alloys are lightweight, non-ferrous metals with good corrosion resistance, ductility, and strength. Aluminum is relatively easy to fabricate by forming, machining, or welding. This metal is a good electrical and thermal conductor. Aluminum is also useful as an alloying element in steel and titanium alloys. Aluminum alloys are versatile metals with applications in almost every industrial and commercial segment.
	Cobalt / Cobalt Alloy		Cobalt and cobalt alloys are non-ferrous magnetic alloys with high strength and toughness, excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance, and high temperature strength. Cobalt can also be magnetized. Cobalt's properties result in the use of cobalt alloys in jet engine super-alloy components, prosthetic devices, magnets, and cutting tool binders. Cobalt is a useful alloying element in tool, maraging, and other alloy steels.
	Copper, Brass or Bronze Alloy (UNS C)		Copper and copper alloys are non-ferrous metals with excellent electrical and thermal conductivity as well as good corrosion resistance, ductility, and strength. Copper alloys are relatively easy to fabricate by forming, casting, or machining. Pure copper is more difficult to weld, cast, or machine. Brass, tin bronze, leaded brass, beryllium copper, and zirconium copper are examples of copper alloys. Copper is useful as an alloying element in aluminum alloys and powder metal based iron alloys.  Copper is a versatile metal with applications in many industrial and commercial segments. Copper's high electrical conductivity (100% IACS) makes it extremely useful in electrical and electronic applications.
	Magnesium / Magnesium Alloy (UNS M)		Magnesium and magnesium alloys are non-ferrous metals with low density (relatively high strength to weight ratio), good ductility, moderate strength, and good corrosion resistance. Magnesium and magnesium alloys are used in a variety of industries as well as in aircraft, marine, and power tool applications.
	Nickel / Nickel Alloy (UNS N)		Nickel and nickel alloys are non-ferrous metals with high strength and toughness, excellent corrosion resistance, and superior elevated temperature properties. Nickel can also be magnetized. Nickel's properties result in the use of nickel alloys in jet engine super-alloy components, corrosion resistant chemical process equipment (valves, piping, and pumps), magnets and electrical resistance alloys, and heating elements. Nickel is also a useful alloying element in stainless, tool, maraging, and other alloy steels.
	Noble / Precious Metal (UNS P)		Noble and precious metal alloys such as silver, gold, platinum, and palladium alloys are extremely resistant to corrosion and oxidation. Noble and precious metal alloys are used in electrical contacts, electronic connectors, chemical process components, catalysts, jewelry, and other specialized applications.
	Rare Earth (UNS E)		Metals or alloys are based on elements from the rare earth elements group.
	Refractory / Reactive (UNS R)		Refractory and reactive metals include boron (B), tungsten (W), tantalum (Ta), molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb) / columbium (Cb), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf), thorium (Th), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), rhenium ( ), and titanium (Ti). Refractory metals and alloys are metals with melting points above ~1750ºC (~ 32000ºF).  Refractory metals include tungsten tantalum, molybdenum, niobium, and zirconium. Refractory metals are used in high temperature, structural, electrical, and other specialty applications. Reactive metals combine readily with oxygen at elevated temperatures to form very stable oxides. Titanium, zirconium, and beryllium are considered reactive metals. Finely divided reactive metals can react explosively with oxygen and are often added to rocket fuels or combustible mixtures. A highly stable oxide film formed on the alloy surface provides protection against further oxidization or corrosion at low to moderate temperatures.  Reactive metals can become embrittled if there is too much interstitial absorption into the lattice of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
	Titanium / Titanium Alloy		Titanium and titanium alloys are non-ferrous metals with excellent corrosion resistance, good fatigue properties, and a high strength-to-weight ratio. Titanium's properties result in the use of titanium and titanium alloys in aircraft or airframe parts, jet engine super-alloy components, corrosion resistant chemical process equipment (valves, piping, and pumps), prostheses or medical devices, and marine equipment.
	White / Low Melting (UNS L)		Lead, tin, and white metals are low melting non-ferrous metals and alloys. Lead and white metal alloys are used as solders, battery electrodes, bearing liners, decorative products, and coatings. They are also used in other specialized applications. Indium, tin, lead, and antimony are used to manufacture semiconductors.
	Zinc / Zinc Alloy (UNS Z)		Zinc and zinc alloys are moderately low-melting, non-ferrous alloys widely used in the production of die cast components.
	Specialty / Other (UNS M)		This refers to other miscellaneous nonferrous metals or alloy grades.
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	Alloy?		Alloys have significant amounts of intentionally added alloying elements or constituents.
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	Pure / Very Low Alloy?		Commercially pure, unalloyed, or very low alloy metals are free of or contain very small amounts of alloying elements such as copper and various grades of copper (e.g., ETP Cu, Be Cu, Cr Cu, Te Cu, Zr Cu); commercially pure titanium or palladium-modified titanium (e.g., C.P. titanium); and pure aluminum grades from the AA 10nnnn Series (e.g., AA 1000 to 1999).
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	Clad / Bimetal?		The metal or alloy stock is a clad or bimetal material, which consists of two or more different alloys bonded integrally together.
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	Metal Matrix Composite?		Metal matrix composites have a composite, reinforced metal, or alloy matrix filled with a second component. The second component of reinforcement may be in particulate, chopped fiber, continuous filament, or fabric form.
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Grades & Specifications

	Standards / Specifications
	Your choices are...
	AISI		Iron-based or ferrous alloys adhere to designations established by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Examples of AISI-SAE steel grades are 1018, 4140, 9610, and 52100.
	AA / IADS		Metals or alloys meet compositional standards established by the Aluminum Association of the United States (AA), which classifies materials based on the International Alloy Designation System (IADS).
	AMS		Metals or alloys meet specific Aerospace Material Specification (AMS) guidelines established by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
	ASTM / ASME		The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a non-profit organization that provides a forum for the development and publication of voluntary standards for materials, products, systems, and services. Most specifications from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) are adapted from or are very similar to ASTM specifications.
	CDA		Metals or alloys meet compositional standards established by the Copper Development Association (CDA) of the United States.
	EN		European Norm or EuroNorm (EN) specifications have superseded several older, national designation systems such as BS, DIN, NS, and SS.
	MIL-SPEC / Federal (QQS)		MIL-SPEC metals meet U.S. government standards and are suitable for military applications. QQ and QQS are prefixes used to designate specific metals.
	JIS		Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) specify the standards used for industrial activities in Japan. The standardization process is coordinated by the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee and published through the Japanese Standards Association.
	SAE		Products meet alloy grades, specifications, or designations established by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
	UNS		Metals or alloys meet the compositional standards in the Unified Numbering System (UNS), which was established by the ASTM, SAE, and several metal trade associations and societies. UNS identifies metals and alloys with a letter and five numbers. For example, carbon and alloy steels are identified as Gnnnnn, where G is the letter nnnnn is the number.
	Specialty / Other		This refers to other unlisted, specialized, and OEM-specific (e.g., GE, P&W, Boeing, etc.) or proprietary material specifications.
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	UNS Number
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Features

	Processing Features:
	Your choices are...
	Cast (Continuous, Centrifugal, etc.)		Cast alloy stocks or shapes are produced in a casting process such as continuous casting or centrifugal casting.
	Wrought		Wrought metals or alloys are worked mechanically to refine their structure, break up inclusion, close porosity, and improve homogeneity.
	Powdered Metal (Compacted)		Powered metal stock or shapes are fabricated by consolidating or compacting powdered or atomized versions of the metal or alloy. Powder processing eliminates the possibility of large inclusions and can produce a finer structure compared to conventional wrought processes.
	Extruded		These alloy stocks or shapes are produced by using an extrusion process.
	Cold Finished / Rolled / Drawn		Alloy stock or shapes are produced in a process that mechanically deforms or works the material at a temperature that is below the recrystallization point of the alloy. Rolling processes squeeze the metal between two steel rolls. Drawing processes pull the metal from a die opening or gap. The elevated temperature allows a greater degree of deformation as well as annealing during the process. Hot rolled metals tend to have more scale on their surface.
	Hot Rolled		Hot rolled alloy stock or shapes are produced in a process that mechanically deforms or works the material at an elevated temperature (e.g., steels in the "red" hot condition). This temperature is above the recrystallization point of the alloy. The elevated temperature allows a greater degree of deformation or a reduction of thickness. A post-annealing process is not required after hot rolling. Hot rolled metals tend to have more surface scale and require pickling and oiling.
	Vacuum Arc Melted (E, VAR, etc.)		The metal alloy has been melted or remelted using an electrical arc in a vacuum chamber or vacuum arc furnace, and then cast into a ingot, billet, or other shape. The vacuum protects the metal alloy from oxidation and contamination during the high temperature melting process. Vacuum melting can also remove undesirable contaminants through evaporation such as magnesium chloride in titanium sponge. Electric arc furnaced steels or E-grade steels are very clean and have less inclusions and lower variability. Aircraft, bearing, and premium steels are usually electric arc furnaced or E-grade steels.
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	Performance Features
	Your choices are...
	Amorphous / Glassy Alloy		Amorphous or glassy alloys do not have a crystal structure, which results in their superior or unique magnetic properties, corrosion resistance, and mechanical and electrical properties.
	Anti-slip / Textured		Plates, bars, angles, or other stock metal shapes have a textured or non-slip surface such as an embossed diamond pattern or an anti-slip abrasive coating.
	Austenitic		200-series austenitic steels are stainless steels that contain chromium, nickel, and manganese. 300-series austenitic steels are stainless steels that contain chromium and nickel. The stainless steels in each austenitic group have different compositions and properties, but share many common characteristics. They can be hardened by cold working but not by heat treatment. In the annealed condition, all are essentially nonmagnetic, although some may become slightly magnetic by cold working. They have excellent corrosion resistance, unusually good formability, and increased strength due to cold working. Type 304 or 18-8 stainless steel is the most widely used alloy in the 300-series austenitic group. It has a nominal composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Type 316 stainless steel has an 18-8 composition modified with molybdenum to improve pitting corrosion resistance. Austenitic grades consist of 201, 301, 301, 303, 304, 304L, 305, 309, 310, 316, 316L, 317, 317L, 321, 347, and 348 as well as specialized or proprietary austenitic stainless steels.
	Coated / Painted		Metal or alloy stock or shapes are coated with a protective or decorative layer of paint, resin, plating, thermal spray deposit, or other organic or inorganic material.
	Coiled Stock		Materials are supplied or available as coils, reels, or other wound stock forms.
	Controlled / Low Expansion Alloy		Alloys are engineered to provide controlled or low thermal expansion characteristics. These low thermal expansion characteristics are useful in metal-to-glass or ceramic sealing applications.
	Corrosion Resistant		These alloys are designed or suitable for service applications that require corrosion resistance.
	Cold Work (Die / Mold)		Steels and alloys are designed or suitable for die, mold, or other cold work service applications. Cold work steels have good compressive strength and wear resistance under room temperature conditions.
	Ferritic		Ferritic stainless steels are straight-chromium 400-series metals that cannot be hardened by heat treatment, and only moderately hardened by cold marketing. They are magnetic, have good ductility, and resistant against corrosion and oxidation. Ferritic stainless steels have chromium levels that range from 10.5% to 40% (typically 12% or more) and carbon levels less than 0.20%. Types 409, 430, 434, 430, 439, 442, and 446 belong in this category. Type 430 is a general-purpose ferritic stainless steel.
	Galvanized		Galvanized steel sheets and products are protected with an electrodeposited or dip zinc layer. The zinc and steel form a galvanic cell under wet or moist conditions. The zinc layer has a lower electro-galvanic potential compared to steel causing the zinc to be attacked and sacrificed while protecting the underlying steel.
	Heat Resistant / Hot Work		Alloys are designed or suitable for service applications that require heat resistance.
	Leaded / Free Machining		Alloys contain additions of lead, selenium, tellurium, bismuth, sulfur, phosphorus or other free-machining additives that help break up chips during the machining process. Free-machining steels include leaded steels (SAE 12L13, 12L14), resulfurized steels (SAE 1117, 1118, 1119) and rephosphorized and resulfurized steels (SAE 1211, 1212, 1213). Tellurium (5% Te) additions to copper increase machinability 20 to 90% while maintaining high conductivity.
	Light Alloy		Light alloys include aluminum, magnesium, titanium, beryllium alloys, and composites with low densities and high strength to weight ratios. Light alloys are useful in aerospace and automotive applications where reduction in weight can improve performance or fuel efficiency.
	Shock / Impact Resistant		Alloys are designed or suitable for service applications that require shock or impact resistance.
	Super Alloy		Superalloys are nickel, cobalt, or iron-based alloys with excellent elevated temperature strength, creep properties, and oxidation resistance.
	Soft Magnetic Alloy		Soft magnetic alloys are easily magnetized and demagnetized.  These alloys are used in motor, transformer, electromagnet, magnetic bearing, solenoid, GFCI, relays, generators, tape heads, and shielding applications in sheet, lamination, and core configurations. Depending on the specific application, alloys are selected based on their permeability, resistivity, core loss, and flux density or saturation characteristics
	Wear Resistant / High Speed		Alloys are designed or suitable for service applications that require wear or erosion resistance.
	Specialty / Other		This refers to other unlisted, specialty or proprietary metals or alloy grades. These materials are based on a unique composition or alloy system, use a novel processing technology, or have properties designed for specific applications.
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Processing & Finish

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	Forged		Metal stock or shapes are available as forged billets, blooms, slabs, or bar stock. The forging process presses, pounds, or squeezes metal stock under very high pressure. Material flow occurs during the forging process, closing any internal porosity and refining the microstructure.
	Annealed		These metals and alloys are provided in an annealed or softened condition. Some materials anneal during thermal-mechanical processing depending on the process temperature range and alloy type.
	Hardened / Heat Treated		Hardened or heat-treated metals and alloys are provided in a hard or hardened condition. Higher hardness or strength levels can be developed through work hardening (mechanical deformation), conventional quench and tempering hardening, aging, precipitation hardening, and other specialized heat treating processes.
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	Finish
	Your choices are...
	Ground / Machined		The surface of the metal shape or stock is ground or machined, resulting in a better finish compared to the processed stock. The processed condition can be rolled, cast, extruded, forged, compacted, and sintered.
	Polished		The surface of the metal shape or stock is polished or buffed, which provides a better finish compared to the rolled, ground, machined, or other processed stock conditions. Polishing uses fine grit or loose or fixed abrasive products to refine the surface finish to a mirror-like condition. Loose abrasive media could include abrasive slurries, polishing compounds, and lapping compounds. Fixed polishing abrasives could include lapping films, fine grit discs or belts, honing tools, and superfinishing products.
	Other		Other unlisted proprietary, patented, or specialized finish, processing, heat treatment, or temper condition.
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Applications

	Applications:
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	Aerospace / Aircraft (AQ)		Products are designed and rated for use in aerospace, aircraft, airport, space vehicle, satellite, rocket, interplanetary explorer, and space station applications. Aircraft quality (AQ) steels and alloys are manufactured to aerospace industry AMS 2301 standard specifications of cleanliness, chemistry, strength, and mill traceability as well as exacting steelmaking, rolling, and testing practices.  Mission critical and highly stressed aircraft parts are fabricated from aircraft quality (AQ) steel alloys. Aircraft quality alloys are also used in non-aerospace applications for highly stressed, mission critical components involving additional stringent inspection requirements such as macro-etch limits, magnetic particle, or other NDT tests for inclusions or other defects. Certified aircraft quality steels have paperwork indicating the alloy is what it is supposed to be and what steel mill produced the product.
	Abrasive / Erosive Wear Protection		Materials resist damage by abrasion or erosion, and protect underlying surfaces from abrasive or erosive wear.
	Alternative / Renewable Energy		Evaluated for alternative or renewable energy production products such as photovoltaic (PV) cells, solar power systems, wind turbines, hydro turbines, and flywheel power systems.
	Automotive / Vehicular		Products are designed and rated for use in automobiles, trailer trucks, trailers, railcars, off-road trucks, and other vehicles.
	Armor / Ballistic Protection		Materials are used to protect equipment, vehicles, and/or personnel against damage from blasts, explosions, bullets, and other high-speed projectiles.
	Bearings (BQ)		Bearing quality steels and alloys are produced in accordance with ASTM A 534, A 295, and A 485. Bearing quality steels are produced under restricted melting and special teeming, heating, rolling, and conditioning methods to meet the rigid bearing quality steel requirements. Bearing quality standards typically apply to alloy steel bars and tubes intended for the manufacture of races and balls or rollers in anti-friction bearings, oil well perforating gun bullets, dies, punches, shear and cutting blades, and cam rollers. Bearing quality level steels are usually produced from standard alloy carburizing grades and high-carbon chromium grades such as 52100 alloy steel.
	Battery / Fuel Cell		Material is suitable for use in battery or fuel cell as a collector plate, proton exchange membrane, or catalyst.
	Biocompatible / Biomaterial		Biomaterials are specially formulated or designed to have suitable biocompatibility for biotechnology and medical applications.
	Chemical / Materials Processing		Materials provide high temperature and/or corrosion resistance, making them suitable for chemical processing applications.
	Construction & Building / Architectural		Materials are designed or suitable for use in architectural, building, and construction applications.
	Electrical / HV Parts		Materials are used to fabricate electrical parts for high voltage or power applications.
	Electronics / RF-Microwave		Materials are suitable for electronics applications, including RF and microwave circuits, antennas, RMI and EFI shielding, and microelectronics interconnects.
	Marine		Products are designed for use in marine applications aboard ships or in offshore settings. Uses include fishing, mooring, docks, jetties, platforms, piers, and ship construction such as hull and deck plates.
	Mining		Alloys engineered for use in very corrosive and abrasive applications around mines and mining operations. Mining industry operations include excavation, water and slurry pumping, earth moving, and drilling under conditions where abrasive, corrosive, and erosive minerals, rocks, and soils are handled.
	MRO (Repair / Resurfacing)		Metals and alloys are suitable for repair, hole or gap filling, patching, refinishing, resurfacing, and other maintenance and repair (MRO) applications.
	Nuclear		Metals and alloys engineered for parts, products, capital equipment, or facilities used in the nuclear or utility industries. Nuclear grade stainless steels are manufactured to higher chemistry and cleanliness standards. Zirconium alloys such as Zircalloy are an excellent tube material choice for containment of uranium dioxide pellets because zirconium has a low neutron capture cross section. Inversely, hafnium has a high neutron capture cross section (neutron absorber) and is commonly used as a control rod alloy in nuclear reactors.
	Oil and Gas		Metals and alloys suitable for applications that can handle exposure to corrosive sour gases, erosive drilling and mining fluids, and abrasive minerals. Oil and gas industry applications entail extracting, synthesizing or processing oils, gases, or fuels such as well drilling, well maintenance, pumping, oil refining, re-refining, recovery, and recycling. Alloy products are designed and rated for use in oil wells and platforms, natural gas wells, refineries, and in other energy exploration and extraction applications.
	Pressure Vessel (PVQ)		Steels and stainless steels suitable for steam boiler, pressure vessel, and process reactor applications. Pressure vessel quality (PVQ) steels are manufactured to ASTM/ASME standards concerning chemical composition, mechanical properties, toughness, weldability, and hydrogen induced crack resistance. Pressure vessel quality steels are manufactured to higher cleanliness and quality standards compared to commercial grade steels.
	Resistance Alloy / Heating		Metals and alloys engineered to have properties suitable for resistance heating element application. These metals and alloys are known as resistance alloys. Nichrome and Kanthal are common nickel based resistance alloys. Resistance alloys must have sufficient internal electrical resistance, high melting point, and sufficient elevated temperature strength. Resistance can vary with temperature and ideally the resistance is uniform in alloys to minimize variations with temperature or provide a linear change. In non-reducing, oxygen rich oven, furnace, and resistance heating applications, the resistance alloy must have high temperature oxidation resistance. In very high temperature vacuum and inert atmosphere furnaces, tungsten and molybdenum are commonly used.
	Structural		Structural applications require ceramic components with a suitable strength, elastic modulus, toughness, and other mechanical properties. These can have much higher ductility and toughness compared to other metals.
	Wear Parts / Tooling		Wear-resistant metals are used in industrial products such as dies, molds, tooling, automotive rings, pump parts, valve seals/seats, stops, brake parts, clutch parts, and machining guides.
	Other		Other unlisted, specialized, or proprietary applications.
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